1. Introduction
    1. General principles
      • Materials are the Core of the Battery
      • Numerous Combinations of Anode, Cathode, and Electrolyte Materials are Possible
      • The First Pre-Requisite for High-Energy-Density Batteries: High Voltage plus Materials with High Capacity and Low Mass
      • The Origin of High Cell Voltage: Chemistry Tells Us ⇒ Need Opposites to Store Lots of Energy
      • Large Potential Difference Between Cathode and Anode Results in High Cell Voltage
      • Electron Conductor (= Electrode) Immersed into Ion Conducting Medium (= Electrolyte)
      • Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB): Active and Inactive Materials
      • Batteries: Electron and Ion Transfer between the Electrodes are Separated
      • Electron and Ion Conduction in Battery Electrode Materials
      • Electron and Ion Conduction in Battery Electrode Materials (Case 1)
      • Electron and Ion Conduction in Battery Electrode Materials (Case 2)
      • Electron and Ion Conduction in Battery Electrode Materials (Case 3)
      • Electron and Ion Conduction in Battery Electrode Materials (Case 4)
      • Electron and Ion Conduction in  Battery Electrode Materials: Overview
      • Active Materials in (Rechargeable) Batteries
    2. Li-metal chemistry—the ancestor of Lithium Ion
      • Metallic Li and Li+-Ion Storage Materials: Why Li Metal? Why Lithium Ion?
      • 1st Ancestor of Lithium-Ion Cells:  Li-Metal Battery Technology
      • High Energy of Solvation of Li+ Causes Li Electrode Potential to be Highly Negative
      • Small Li+-Ion Radius
      • The SEI: The Key to Lithium-Metal Batteries
      • SEI: Terminology
      • Summary: Why Lithium?
      • On the Search for Substrates for Li Deposition: Alloying/Intercalation of Li into Metals/ (Graphitic) Carbon as Side Reaction
      • Li/TiS2 and LiAl/TiS2 Rechargeable Cell EXXON (70ies)
      • Li/MoS2 Rechargeable Cell Moli Energy (80ies)
      • Cell Design for Li/MoS2 System
      • The Rechargeable Lithium Metal Trauma: Beginning in 1989…Still Existent Today
      • Rechargeable Li-Metal Cell: High Energy Density, but Dendrite Risk, ⇒ Safety Problem
      • Solution: Insertion/Intercalation Anode: Li+ Ion Storage and SEI are Locally Separated
    3. Lithium-Ion design overview
      • Active and Inactive Materials in LIB Cells
      • Composite Electrodes: Made from Powdery Materials and Binder Coated on a Current Collector
      • The Lithium-Ion Advantage Variability ⇒ Numerous Material Combinations ⇒ Tailored Solutions
      • Lithium-Ion Batteries: Enabled by the Electrolyte/Separator
      • 2nd Ancestor of Lithium-Ion Cell: HSO4-Ion Transfer Cell Based on 2 Graphite Electrodes (1938)
      • A Drawback of Li Storage Materials: Capacity Dilution by Host Material
      • Limitations of Li+-Insertion Materials: Limited Li+-Ion Transport Rates
      • Common Knowledge: There are Rechargeable Batteries with Higher Capacity than LIB; but always Lower Specific Energy
      • ‘4V’ Lithium-Ion Batteries: Electrolyte Reduction and Oxidation
      • High-Voltage Batteries Need Thermodynamically and/or Kinetically Stable Electrolytes
      • Battery Voltages and Electrolyte Stability: Thermodynamic and Kinetic Stability
      • From 1791 Until Today ⇒ From Aqueous to Non-Aqueous Electrolytes ⇒ From 1 V to >5 V Batteries
    4. Battery design trade-offs and limitations
      • Why a Battery Cannot Outperform the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)
      • Gasoline vs. Li: A Comparison of Combustion Mechanisms
      • Why a Battery Cannot Outperform the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)
      • Theor. Specific Energies (kWh/kg) of Li/Air and Gasoline-Air Systems With/Without Regarding the Weight of the Reaction Products
      • ‘Good’ and ‘Bad’ Battery Materials
      • ‘Good Nano’
      • ‘Bad Nano’
      • Multiple Requirements on Battery Materials
      • Battery Material Design is Complex - Example: Active Materials
      • Systemic Approach: Balance of Properties
  2. Anodes
    1. Introduction to Lithium-Ion battery materials
      • LIBs, Made from Materials
      • Material Mapping via Potential vs. Capacity Plots
      • Li-Metal Battery and LIB: State of the Art
      • Balance of Cathode vs. Anode; Wh/kg & Wh/L: LiCoNiO2 vs. Graphite
      • LIB: Possibilities for Further Development
      • There are Numerous Anode Materials for/in Lithium-Ion Batteries
      • Different Lithiation Reaction Mechanisms Result in Two Extreme Performance Patterns
    2. Carbonaceous and graphitic anodes
      • Carbons – Major Anode Material
      • Manufacturing of Graphites: Natural and Synthetic
      • Manufacturing of Synthetic Graphite
      • Graphitic Carbons
      • Amorphous (Hard) Carbons
      • How to Increase Anode Rate Capability while Keeping  High Li Storage Capacity ⇒ Core/Shell Carbons
      • Monitoring of Carbon Properties: Purity, Uniformity & Physical Properties
      • Graphite Particle Shape and Morphology – Examples
      • Irreversible Capacity, Reversible Capacity, and Coulombic Efficiency
      • Ternary Graphite Intercalation Compounds (Li+(solv)yCn) vs. Binary Intercalation Compounds (LiCn)
      • Antidote vs. Solvent Co-Intercalation: Electrolyte Additive!
    3. Alternatives to carbonaceous and graphitic anodes
      • Overview
        • Alternatives to Carbonaceous and Graphitic Anodes
        • The Always First Look at Anode Materials: Capacity!
        • A Second Look, Also Important: Abundance and Costs
        • Comparison of Anode Materials: Operation Potentials
        • Capacity AND De-Lithiation Potential: Impact on Specific Energy
        • Comparison of Anode Materials: Coulombic Efficiency (CE), Voltage Efficiency (VE) and Energy Efficiency (EE)
        • Determination of Energy Efficiency (EE) of Anode (Graphite) and Cathode (LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4)
        • Efficient Storage and Re-Use of Electricity
      • Lithium-Storage Metals and Alloys
        • Lithium-Storage Metals and Alloys ⇒ Li Alloys
        • Lithium-Storage Metals: Gravimetric  and Volumetric Capacities
        • Charging of Li-Storage Metals and Carbon
        • Volume and Structural Changes
        • Key Challenges with Li-Storage Metals
        • The Established Solution, Part I: Nano-Structures
        • Nano-Structured ≠ Nano-Sized
        • The Established Solution, Part II: Multiphases and Composites
        • Combination of Small Particle Size and Multiphase/Composite Morphologies
        • Pure Metal vs. Intermetallic vs. Multiphase Composite: Sn vs. SnSb vs. Sn/SnSb
        • Tin Oxides (Fuji Photo Film, 1995)
        • Differences in SEI Stability During Cycling
        • Apart from Material Structure Measures: What can be done?
        • Example for Electrode Measures: Si/C Composite Electrodes: Cu Foil vs. 3D Current Collector
        • Today: Silicon Everywhere
        • Summary: Strategies to Improve the Performance of Lithium-Storage Metals and Alloys
        • Effect of Si Addition to a Graphite Anode with Regard to Balancing in the Cell
      • Metal Oxides
        • Metal Oxides – Insertion and Conversion Materials
        • Lithium Titanate – LTO
        • Metal Oxides – Insertion and Conversion Materials
    4. Pre-lithiation and other measures to compensate for Cirr
      • Overcoming the Low Coulombic Efficiency and High 1st Cycle Irreversible Capacities (Cirr) of Li-Storage Metals and Conversion Materials
      • Pre-Lithiation and Other Measures to Compensate for Cirr
      • Capacity AND De-Lithiation Potential: Impact on Specific Energy With and Without Pre-Lithiation
  3. Cathodes
    1. Introduction: cathode materials classification
      • Cathode Materials for/in Li Cells: Classification According to Charging Voltage, Structure and Li-Storage Mechanism
      • LIB Cathode Materials: Abbreviations and Terms as Used in the Literature
      • LIB Cathode Materials: Present and Future Materials Rely Mainly on Three Different Structure Types
      • Cathode Materials for/in Lithium-Ion Cells: Voltage Profiles of Cathode Materials
    2. Synthesis of cathode materials
      • General Synthesis Methods (There are Additional Derivative Methods)
      • Annealing, Pellets, Quenching
      • Example for Precursor and Synthesis Optimization: Advancing LiMn2O4 (LMO): GEN 1 ⇒ GEN 2
      • How to Get a Better (But Also More Complicated) Cathode Material
    3. Cathode vs. anode: capacity balancing
      • Li-Metal Battery and LIB: State of the Art
      • Typically, Anode has Higher Capacity than Cathode: Balance of Specific Capacities of Cathode vs. Anode: ⇒ Wh/kg
      • Balance of Cathode vs. Anode: ⇒ Wh/kg  and Wh/L - LiCoNiO2 vs. Graphite
      • Balance of Cathode vs. Anode: ⇒ Wh/kg and Wh/L - LiNiCoO2 vs. Si
      • Balance of Cathode vs. Anode: ⇒ Wh/kg and Wh/L - LiFePO4 vs. Graphite
      • Optimization of Cell Capacity by Enhancement  of Anode AND Cathode Capacity
      • Balance of Cathode vs. Anode: ⇒ Mass vs. Volume Considerations
      • LIB: Possibilities for Further Development
    4. Layered cathode materials
      • The Starting Point: LiCoO2 (LCO)
      • LiCoO2 (LCO): ▸Theoretical vs. Practical Capacity ▸Comparison with LiNiO2 (LNO)
      • Trend in Layered Cathode Materials: ▸Stabilization vs. Overcharge and Thermal Instability ▸Reduction of Co Content for Cost Reasons
      • Layered Ni-rich NCM622 and NCM811 - LiNixxMn1-x/2Co1-x/2O2 with x ≥ 0.6
      • Optimized synthesis ⇒ Small Li+/Ni2+ Cation Mixing ⇒ Better Rate Capability
      • Electrochemical Performance of NCM811
      • High-Voltage Application of NCM ⇒ Metal Dissolution Depends on the Applied Potential (Data at Room Temperature)
      • Negative Influence of Dissolved Metal Cations on Electrochemical Performance
      • Commercialized for a Long Time, Still High Impact: LiNiCoAlO2 (LNCA or NCA)
      • Surface Modification of LNCA = Purification ⇒ Power Capability
      • Coating of LNCA ⇒ Reduced Reactivity and thus Better Safety
      • Coating of LNCA with LNCM ⇒ Better Safety
      • Paradox: How to Get More ACTIVE Redox Capacity (= Discharge Capacity) with Redox-INACTIVE Dopants?
      • Lithium-Rich and Mn-Rich ‘Layered-Layered’ Cathode, HE-NCM, LMNC
      • Li-Rich Cathode is Charged to High Voltage
      • Challenges and Opportunities of ‘Lithium-Rich’ Cathodes
      • Numerous Challenges Need to be Overcome: Li-Mn-O Cathode Materials
    5. Other cathode materials
      • Lithium Manganese Oxide – LMO
      • LiMn2O4 (LMO): Theory and Application
      • LMO with Improved High Temperature Performance
      • LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 – LNMO, THE High Voltage Cathode
      • Lithium Iron Phosphate – LFP
      • LiFePO4: Back to the Iron Age?
      • Thermal Stability of Charged Cathode Materials
      • High-Voltage Lithium Metal Phosphates – LMPO, LCPO
      • High-Capacity Cathodes for Li-Ion: Li2FeSiO4
      • High-Capacity Cathodes for Li-Ion: Organic Li+-Materials
    6. Composite cathodes & summary
      • Combinations of Cathode Materials
      • Physical Blends
      • LIB Cathodes: Summary
      • Cathode Chemistries: Comparison
    7. Mutual anode-cathode influence
      • Common Knowledge: 1st Cycle Capacity Losses Depend on the BET Surface Area of the Graphite Anode
      • Both Graphite Anode and LNCM Cathode Show Capacity Losses
      • 1st Cycle Capacity Losses and BET Surface Area: Li/Graphite Half Cell vs. NCM/Graphite Full Cell
      • The Daily Life of a Lithium-Ion Cell: LiCoO2 (LCO) vs. Graphite
      • Over-Charge in a LCO-Based Lithium-Ion Cell
      • Anode (C) ↔ Cathode (LCO) Communication
      • Full Cell: Capacity Loss at the Anode Leads to Overcharge at the Cathode
      • Design of Experiment
      • Influence of Surface Area of the Graphite Anode on the LCO Cathode Performance
      • Differences in SEI Stability During Cycling
      • Si vs. C Anode : Influence of Different SEI Stabilities on LCO Performance
      • The Anode Gets the Sniffles, but the Cathode Gets the Flu
  4. Electrolytes
    1. Composition of liquid organic-solvent-based electrolytes
      • Electrolytes for/in Lithium-Ion and Lithium Batteries
      • Liquid Non-Aqueous Electrolytes Mostly Organic-Solvent-Based
      • Liquid Electrolytes: Numerous, Almost Uncountable Components
      • Performance Requirements Narrow the Number of Practical Components
      • Non-Aqueous Liquid Organic Electrolytes
    2. Conductivity and transport mechanism
      • Electrolyte Conductivity: Salt Selection
      • Electrolyte Conductivity: Solvent Selection
      • Transport Mechanism of Liquid Electrolytes in Comparison to Polymeric and Ceramic Solid Electrolytes
      • Search For ‘Single Li+-Ion Conductors’
    3. Electrolyte stability and interphase (SEI, CEI) formation
      • ‘4V’ and ‘5V’ Lithium Ion: Decomposition of Organic-Solvent-Based Electrolytes
      • Anode SEI & Cathode CEI
      • High-Voltage Batteries Need Thermodynamically and/or Kinetically Stable Electrolytes
      • Battery Voltages and Electrolyte Stability: Thermodynamic and Kinetic Stability
    4. SEI and CEI analysis
      • Thermodynamic Oxidation and Reduction Stabilities of Electrolyte Components
      • HV Stable Electrolytes Enabling High Potentials at the Cathode: Thermodynamic vs. Kinetic Approach
      • HV Stable Electrolytes: Enabling Low Potentials at the Anode - Kinetic Stability ⇒ SEI Formation
      • The Challenge: Oxidation-Stable Electrolytes
      • Combined Analytical Efforts in Battery (Materials) Analytics
      • Analysis ⇒ Understanding ⇒ Improvement
      • Different Effects of Various Electrolyte Decomposition Products on Cell Performance
    5. SEI forming solvents and electrolyte additives
      • Example for SEI Enhancer: SEI-Forming Solvents, e.g. Partially Fluorinated Solvents
      • Example for SEI Enhancer: Polymerizable Electrolyte Additives as SEI Enhancer at the Anode
      • Electrolyte Additives Make the Difference in Liquid Organic Electrolytes
      • Electrolyte Additives for Safety Enhancement
      • Electrolyte Additives for Safety Enhancement (Cont’d)
      • Over-Charge in a LIB Cell ⇒ Multiple Reactions Severely Deteriorating Performance and Safety
    6. The electrolyte salt: LiPF6
      • A Major Source of/for Electrolyte Decomposition -The Electrolyte Salt LiPF6
      • LiPF6-Based Electrolytes: There Are More Toxic Compounds Than HF
      • Organosphosphates (OPs) React with Enzymes ⇒ Amount and Toxic Hazard to be Determined
      • Limitations of Liquid Organic Electrolytes – Liquid Solvents
    7. Ionic Liquids (ILs)
      • What are Ionic Liquids?
      • Ionic Liquids for  High-Voltage Electrochemical Devices
      • The Electrolyte: The “Elixir of Life” of a Battery Cell
  5. Inactive Materials
    1. Overview of active and inactive materials
      • Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB): Active and Inactive Materials
      • 18650:  A Standard Cylindrical Cell - Notebook Computers and Power Tools
      • Mass Distribution in an 18650 Cell - 5 Main Groups of Components
      • Mass Distribution in an 18650 Cell - Component Details
      • Mass Distribution in an 18650 cell - Summary: Active vs. Inactive Materials
      • Mass Distribution in an 18650 Cell - Lithium Ion Battery is a “Sham”
      • 3.1-Ah 18650 Cylindrical Consumer Cell: Material Costs
      • 56-Ah Pouch EV Cell Material Costs
      • 5-Ah HEV Cell, 200k Packs per Year - Material Costs
    2. Separators
      • Overview
        • Separators for/in Lithium-Ion Batteries
      • Separator types
        • Separator types
      • PE separators
        • Polyolefin Separator: Prepared by Wet Processing
        • Polyolefin Separators: Celgard
      • Special separators: Tri-layer and ceramic
        • Special Separators, Shut-Down Separators
        • Special Separators: Ceramic Separators
        • Separator Demands: Issues, Accomplishments and To-dos
        • Separators – USABC Requirements for LIB Separators
        • Separators – Definitions / Explanations
      • Heat-resistant layer
        • Alternatives to Ceramic Separators: Heat Resistant Layer (HRL) on the Electrode
      • Safety considerations from the material side
        • Is a Systematic Approach to Lithium-Ion Cell Safety Possible?
        • The Fire Tetrahedron in a Lithium-Ion Cell – Materials View
        • The Fire Tetrahedron in a Lithium-Ion Cell – Materials View: Countermeasures
    3. Current collectors
      • Composite Electrode Components
      • Current Collectors
      • Current Collectors: Requirements for LIB
      • Li Reaction with Current Collectors: An Issue Since the Beginning of Li Batteries
      • Stability of the Cu Current Collector: Dissolution During Over-Discharge
      • Stability of the Al Current Collector: Anodic Oxidation and Dissolution; Depending on the Electrolyte Salt
    4. Binders
      • Binders (electrode glue)
      • The polymer binder in the electrode works as a flexible adhesive, a link between the electrode particles as well as between the particles and the current collector
      • Key Requirements of Binders for LIBs as Materials Themselves
      • Binders - Key Attributes During Processing
      • Most Prominent Binders
      • The Type of Binder Determines Processing Stability and Binder Distribution
      • Binder Processing
      • Binder Reactivity with Electrode Materials
    5. Conductive electrode additives
      • Conductive Electrode Additives
      • Introduction: Carbon Black (CB)
      • Basic Properties of Carbon Black
      • SE Micrographs of LFP Electrodes with Different CBs
      • Conductive Coating (⇒ Short Range Contact) Conductive Additive (⇒ Long Range Contact)
      • Where Electrolyte Reactions Take Place, e.g., Cathode Side
      • High Voltage Cathodes (ca. >4.5 V vs. Li/Li+): Anion Intercalation into Carbon!
      • Different Functions of Conductive Carbons at 4.0V and 5.0V Charge of the LIB
      • LIB Reactions between 0.0V up to 6.0V vs. Li/Li+
  6. Beyond Lithium-Ion Batteries
    1. Beyond Lithium Ion, before Lithium Ion, parallel to Lithium Ion
      • How Much Energy is 1 (one) kWh?
      • Post Lithium-Ion (PLIB), Before Lithium-Ion, and Parallel to Lithium-Ion Batteries
      • Terminology: Post Lithium Ion (PLIB), Before Lithium Ion, Parallel to Lithium Ion
    2. How to make high-energy-density (“super”) batteries?
      • The First Pre-Requisite for High-Energy Batteries: High Voltage plus Materials with High Capacity and Low Mass
      • Large Potential Difference Between Cathode and Anode Results in High Cell Voltage
      • The Standard: Non-Aqueous Liquid Organic Electrolytes
      • Electrolyte Stability in "4V" and “5V” LIBs: ⇒ Electrolyte Reduction and Oxidation
      • Specific Capacity in Ah/kg: Active and Inactive Materials in LIBs
      • 18650:  A Standard Cylindrical Cell: Notebook Computers and Power Tools
      • Mass Distribution in an 18650 cell: 5 Main Groups of Components
      • Mass Distribution in an 18650 cell: Component Details
      • Mass Distribution in an 18650 cell: Summary: Active vs. Inactive Materials
      • Mass Distribution in an 18650 Cell: Lithium-Ion Battery is “Sham”
      • Material Mapping via Potential vs. Capacity Plots
      • Li-Metal Battery and LIB: State of the Art
      • Balance of Cathode vs. Anode; Wh/kg & Wh/L: LiCoNiO2 vs. Graphite
      • LIB: Possibilities for Further Development
      • Li-Metal Battery: Standard in Primary (Non-Rechargeable) Applications
      • Lithium-Metal Rechargeable Batteries; New Options: Sulfur and Oxygen (Air)
    3. Specific energy vs. energy density: A necessary look at new cell chemistries
      • Material Mapping: Volumetric (Ah/L) and Specific Capacities (Ah/kg)
      • LIB: Possibilities for Further Development
      • Installation Space: Volumetric Capacities
      • LIB und PLIB: Volumetric Capacities
      • Energy Density vs. Specific Energy: Cell & System Level (Lit. Data, Practical Values)
    4. Lithium/sulfur chemistry
      • Lithium/Sulfur: Not so Simple
      • Li/S: Capacity Fade in the 1st 50 -100 Cycles
      • Li/S (and Li/Air) Need New Electrode, Cell and Battery System Designs in Addition to Improved Cell Chemistries
      • Shape Change at the Lithium Anode
      • Shape Change at the Sulfur Cathode
      • Polysulfides Li2Sx (x = 2, 4, 6, 8): More Challenges than Advantages
      • Li/S (and Li/Air) at the Anode Side? Dynamic Interface with the Electrolyte
    5. Lithium/air chemistry
      • Metal/Air Batteries: Even More Complicated
      • Theoretical Specific Energies of Metal/Air Cells in Comparison
      • Non-Aqueous Electrolyte Li/Air Cell
      • Li/Air: New Electrolytes are Needed
      • ‘Artificial’ vs. Natural SEI: for Li-S, Li-Air Cells and More?
      • A Way Out of the Dilemma? Protected Li Metal Anodes
      • Li/Air Cells with Various Electrolytes and with a Solid Electrolyte (SE) Membrane: Overview
      • Li/Air Cells with Various Electrolytes and with a Solid Electrolyte Membrane: a) Non-Aqueous Li/Air Cell; No SE
      • Li/Air Cells with Various Electrolytes and with a Solid Electrolyte Membrane: b) Aqueous Li/Air Cell
      • Li/Air Cells with Various Electrolytes and with a Solid Electrolyte Membrane: c) Hybrid Li/Air Cell
      • Li/Air Cells with Various Electrolytes and with a Solid Electrolyte Membrane: d) All Solid State Li/Air Cell
    6. Solid electrolytes: polymeric and ceramic
      • Beyond Liquid Organic-Solvent-Based Electrolytes
      • Physicochemical, Mechanical, and Electrochemical Properties LE vs. SE
      • Cell Manufacturing: LE vs. SE
      • State of the Art and Challenges of Solid Electrolytes
      • Solid Electrolytes: Polymer Electrolytes
      • Solid Electrolytes with Glassy or Ceramic Composition
      • Conductance (S) vs. Conductivity (S/cm)
      • Processing Routes ⇒ Solid Electrolyte Battery Manufacturing
      • Specific Energy (Wh/kg) Considerations: Liquid Electrolyte (LE) vs. Solid Electrolyte (SE)  Cells and Packs
      • Cost of Li-Metal Anode / SE Cells
    7. Alternative chemistries: Na, Na-Ion, Mg, Al, Dual-Ion
      • Why Alternative Anodes: Abundance Reasons
      • Alternative Metal Anodes: Specific Capacities
      • Alternative Metal Anodes: Volumetric Capacities
      • Summary: Why Alternative Anodes?
      • The SEI: The Key to Metal Batteries
      • Aqueous Metal/Air Batteries: ⇒ Zn/Air Batteries as Prominent Example
      • Volta-Pile (1800): First Practical Battery Ever; Is Actually a Metal/Air Battery
      • Rechargeable Alkaline Electrolyte Zinc/Air Battery (= 'Zinc/Air Fuel Cell')
      • Na/Air and Na-Ion Battery (NIB) Chemistries
      • Multi-Valent Cation Battery Chemistries: (Be2+), Mg2+, (Ca2+), and Al3+
      • Non-aq. Electrolyte Magnesium Battery Chemistries
      • Efficient Storage and Re-Use of Electricity
      • Aluminum/Air Battery
      • Dual-Ion Battery Chemistries
      • Thinking in Generations and Roadmaps